So why the call now for increased attention to writing in U.S. schools? Perhaps the best answer, as in decades past, is that the context has changed. Educational and economic landscapes have shifted, highlighting different priorities, exposing new gaps, and putting pressure on students and teachers to perform in new and different ways.
Some key examples:
Less time spent on writing: As educators across the country face larger classes, fewer resources, and increasingly complex student needs, the amount of time devoted to teaching and responding to student writing in many schools is on the decline. According to the 2002 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) (cited in NCW, 2003), only 49 percent of high school seniors receive writing assignments of three pages or more, and then only once or twice a month. Thirty-nine percent report receiving such assignments "never" or "hardly ever" (NCW, 2003, p. 20). Given the increased emphasis on meeting the reading and math benchmarks in No Child Left Behind, writing instruction may have slipped to the back burner in some districts (Hurwitz & Hurwitz, 2004; NCW, 2003).
Low writing scores: NAEP (2002) reports that only 24 percent of 12th-graders perform at or above the proficient level in writing. This is compared with 31 percent in eighth grade, and 28 percent in fourth grade. While most high school graduates can produce rudimentary prose, the study found, few can produce prose that is "precise, engaging, and coherent" (NAEP, 2002 cited in NCW, 2003, p. 16).
New standards for written communication across disciplines: Alaska, Oregon, Idaho, Washington, and Montana, like many other states, identify writing in the content areas as a key learning target for students in middle and high school. The 1996 National Science Education Standards similarly emphasize students' ability to use writing to communicate subject area knowledge. Secondary students are expected to use writing in science classes, as in others, to "inform, explain, defend, debate, and persuade others of their understandings" (Yore, Hand, & Prain, 1999, p. 13).
Limited teacher preparation: As the National Commission on Writing (2003) notes, most preservice teachers in the United States "receive little instruction in how to teach writing. Only a handful of states require courses in writing for certification" at this time (p. 23). This lack of training is particularly apparent when it comes to working with students whose home language and literacy practices differ markedly from teachers' own. Very few teachers, including those with language arts endorsements, receive adequate training in building inclusive curricula or working with students from diverse ethnic, linguistic, and socioeconomic backgrounds.
New tests for graduation and college admission: Eighteen states now require students to pass a writing test to graduate from high school. Several others, including Alaska, Washington, and Idaho, will soon follow. Students planning to attend college also face new writing assessments for college admission. Beginning in 2005, both the SAT and ACT will include a writing section on their exams.
Inadequate preparation for college writing: Fourteen percent of students pursuing postsecondary education in the United States place into precollege-level writing courses (Wirt et al., 2001). Of these students, a disproportionate number continue to be students of color, low-income students, and non-native speakers of English. Often such courses require additional fees, cannot be paid for with financial aid, and do not count toward graduation, creating additional obstacles to college success (Jennings & Hunn, 2002).
Changing workforce demands: In a recent survey of 251 employers who hire students right out of high school, 73 percent reported that graduates' writing skills were "poor" or "fair" (Public Agenda, 2002). As more and more entry-level jobs are outsourced to other countries, the burden becomes even greater on high school graduates in the United States to develop a high level of skill, not just in math and technology, but also in writing.
Responding to these and other issues, several national educational organizations have put out a call for more time and attention to be paid to writing in U.S. schools, particularly at the secondary level (NCW, 2003; NWP & Nagin, 2003). As in the past, writing across the curriculum plays a central role in their recommendations. In their 2003 publication, The Neglected 'R': The Need for a Writing Revolution, for example, the National Commission on Writing urges educators both to prioritize training in writing instruction for all teachers and to double the amount of time students spend writing in school.
Even with a handful of strategies like the ones described in the previous section, classroom teachers who have received little training in writing may feel they are grasping for straws when asked to incorporate more writing into their teaching. High-quality professional development that addresses writing issues in the context of teachers' content areas is indispensable. In an effort to provide readers with at least a general framework for getting started, we offer a brief introduction to current theories of writing instruction below.
Writing develops through meaningful practice: In order to improve, students need meaningful opportunities to put developing skills to use (Shanahan, 2004). Research indicates that the "development of student writing from approximate forms to conventional forms is best achieved through substantial time devoted to writing, multiple opportunities to write across the school day and focused instruction that builds from the writers' efforts" (Egawa, 1998). Assignments should allow students to write for real audiences and purposes, and to make connections between home, community, and school.
Writing is a situated and recursive process: "Most research today supports the view that writing is recursive, that it does not proceed linearly but instead cycles and recycles through subprocesses" that include planning, drafting, evaluating, and revising (NWP & Nagin, 2003, p. 25). Though many textbooks present students with a prescribed version of "the writing process"—first brainstorm, then outline, then draft, and so on—compositionists stress that there are in fact many writing processes that vary from student to student and task to task.
Writing and reading are interrelated: According to Tierney and Shanahan (1991), "numerous studies have shown that writing led to improved reading achievement, reading led to better writing, and combined instruction led to improvement in both reading and writing" (p. 258). Because reading and writing skills support each other, struggling students in particular should be encouraged to focus on both simultaneously, not wait for one to improve before working on the other.
Different writing situations impose different demands: Writing is not an isolated skill that, once mastered, can simply be called up and put into the service of new writing tasks. Students who write effectively in genres and subject areas they know well may encounter enormous difficulty with others. Strong writing programs provide students practice in many genres and emphasize strategies for identifying different conventions and constraints.
Some key examples:
Responding to these and other issues, several national educational organizations have put out a call for more time and attention to be paid to writing in U.S. schools, particularly at the secondary level (NCW, 2003; NWP & Nagin, 2003). As in the past, writing across the curriculum plays a central role in their recommendations. In their 2003 publication, The Neglected 'R': The Need for a Writing Revolution, for example, the National Commission on Writing urges educators both to prioritize training in writing instruction for all teachers and to double the amount of time students spend writing in school.
http://www.nwrel.org/request/2004dec/textonly.html
Even with a handful of strategies like the ones described in the previous section, classroom teachers who have received little training in writing may feel they are grasping for straws when asked to incorporate more writing into their teaching. High-quality professional development that addresses writing issues in the context of teachers' content areas is indispensable. In an effort to provide readers with at least a general framework for getting started, we offer a brief introduction to current theories of writing instruction below.
http://www.nwrel.org/request/2004dec/textonly.html